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1. GENERAL PECULIARITIES OF THE GREEK CHRISTIAN LITERATURE
2. The New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers
3. FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. APOLOGISTS
4. THE GREEK FATHERS OF CONSTANTINE UP

1. GENERAL PECULIARITIES OF THE GREEK CHRISTIAN LITERATURE

The usual practice in the study of Literature Greek is to separate the study of ancient pagan literature of the Christian this is related to the very origins of Classical Studies, which emerged in late S. Eighteenth to the emancipation of theological studies.

• If you look at the problem from the standpoint of history of religions, it makes sense to establish this caesura (polytheism to monotheism), not so much if we look at the issue as a confrontation between schools of thought.
• This approach is also rooted in antiquity, since Josephus and presented to the public pagan differences between branches of Judaism as if try to clashes between different philosophical schools.
• On the other hand, it is obvious that the differences between one text and others are radical: p. eg., Paul's concept of man's salvation is incompatible with any idea of \u200b\u200bthe philosophical schools of his time on the final end of man.

While it must be stressed in connection with the Christian literary forms of the Greek tradition: that is the soil and the habitat that develops Christian Greek literature:

• The New Testament epistles can be linked with the tradition of philosophical letter doctrinal
• homilies of the Fathers, with the diatribes of philosophers
• comments to the Bible, written comments to the philosophical writings
• dogmatic Christians, philosophical treatises,
• the polemical writings against pagans, with the written polemic against other schools of philosophy or against the Christians.

The only types of Christian writings with no connection to the Greek tradition

• 
  
• the prophetic writings that refer to Jewish tradition,
• and writings that respond to new situations, typical of community Christian (as the minutes of martyrs).

is usual to study the ancient Christian literature caesurae dividing as marking the history of Christianity. So speaking of

1. a period of consolidation, until the Council of Nicea (325);
2. a period of swing, until the Council of Chalcedon (451);
3. a period of decline, until the death of John Damascus (c. 750).

At first, the scriptural canon remained for Christians the Old Testament, read as a foreshadowing of Christ and his teachings.
The New Testament canon was not established until the second half of S. II, and that the threat posed by the Gnosis.

The movement of the Gnosis, which is documented in the imperial era, blending Hellenistic philosophical ideas with religious ideas about salvation. Not know the origins of the movement, partly because the victory of Christianity over the Gnosis led to the disappearance of almost all sources.
Gnosis represented a danger to the Christians for their syncretic nature and its capacity to assimilate doctrines next, so that could be confused with Christianity.
Thus, the Gnostic writings that were produced Christians go through: thus, the Acts of Thomas, apparently an account of the mission of Thomas in India - but under the surface, an exhibition of Gnostic doctrines.
A fundamental idea of \u200b\u200bGnosticism is the belief in a dualism of God - Subject:

• Well God is not left to know.
• Matter is the Evil
• God created through his Lógos the world of Spirit, which, in turn, the spiritual forces (ideas) and the spirits created the heaven, earth and man in the image of God.
• On the other hand, departed spirits of God and joined Matter, becoming wicked, trying to prevent the union of men with God.
• why God had to send along with your Lógos men to show them the way of salvation.

The similarity with Christian ideas is evident. Upon Gnostic literature which exploited this similarity to Christianity (Acts of Apostles , look before you said about Acts of Thomas; stories featuring Jesus, Gospel, dialogue with the disciples), the reaction from Christian consisted to establish a canon of writings that were to be considered disclosed.


2. THE NEW TESTAMENT And the Apostolic Fathers

is not easy to define the process of consolidating the New Testament canon until the 27 books considered disclosed. The oldest testimony of our New Testament seems to be an epistle of St. Athanasius (367).
From a formal point of view, the New Testament writings are left divided into three groups:

• historical books (narrative): the four gospels plus Acts ;
• cards: 13, San Pablo plus Hebrews and the "Catholic Epistles" (from James, Peter, John, Judas);
• the Revelation.

Of these three groups, which has fewer problems from the point of view as are the letters: they are texts written in the tradition of the letter of doctrine. Some may be aimed at specific communities and, sometimes, to all Christians.

For his part, Rev. is in the tradition of Jewish literature of resistance to the Hellenistic monarchs: a revelation of hidden meaning announces future events. (See entry 58. The Hebrew literature in the Greek language and literature of ancient cross ). Some critics assume
that the work was written around AD 90, possibly against the threat of persecution by the state: the text announcing the final triumph of Christianity. It belonged to the canon
perhaps in the S. II, Apocalypse of Peter seems to indicate the so-called "fragment [or Canon] Muratori, a previous index of the canonical writings, the text of this Revelation fragments remain suggesting that arose at the time of the revolt Bar Kochba (135 AD).

regard to the historical books (narrative) can be read as follows:

1. The Acts are written in the line of historiography Hellenistic. Hence the role granted to the speeches. The key figure in the text is Paul, whose arrival in Rome says. At the other end of the work, the preamble speaks of a first logos written by Luke (the Gospel).
2. The Gospels are complex to design from the point of view of gender. Along with features of Jewish religious literary tradition have features of the Greek tradition. On one side are similarities with the stories about the lives of the prophets and the wisdom books (which represent a correlate to the direct words of Jesus). On the other hand can be put in connection with the Hellenistic tradition and the lives paradoxografía philosophers.

Beside the canonical New Testament writings are a series of texts that claim to have been written by the apostles but in any case, by his disciples. It is written of S. II and their authors are known from the S. XVII as "Apostolic Fathers."
Contents of this literature are, above all, letters, attributed to Barnabas, Clement, Polycarp and Ignatius of Antioch (seven cards in his case).
also part of this group Hermas, author of a book of prophetic type, the Shepherd of Hermas , near the canon under Muratori fragment.


3. PARENTS OF THE CHURCH.
APOLOGISTS
A turning point represented by the Apologetics, "literature of defense", because that it produces an approximation of Christianity in the mold of Greek Philosophy: Christianity needs to speak the language of pagan philosophy in order to plant face.

• It should be noted that in the context of S. II, confronted with Christianity class intellectual figures: Fronton, or Celso Luciano.
• Celso, for example, tried to show in real discourse the inconsistency of the Christian ideas from a philosophical standpoint, and certainly know the work only through the polemics of Christian authors.

on all of this had to stand against the defenders of Christianity. For example, to refute the idea that Christians were conspiring against the state.
In other cases, the literature tried to gain new converts, which was close to "Protrepticus" of philosophers. This approach was perfectly feasible while the authors were trained intellectuals pagan philosophy and rhetoric: they start with Christian theology.
At this first moment of Apologetics belongs, among others, St. Justin, "philosopher and martyr, who was retains complete work.

S. Late II Christianity had already acquired sufficient intellectual content to appeal to the elites who sought a direction for their lives.
About this time were due to open early Christian schools, similar to those of the philosophers, though different from them to be under the authority of the bishop.
For example, this is the case of the school that was in Alexandria Clement (140/150 - 220), whose work is fundamental triad Protrepticus, Pedagogue, Stromata.

Another name connected with Alexandria is that of Origen (in around 185 - 253 / 254). Natural
of that city, sustained persecution of political power and eventually died because of them. Also quarreled with the ecclesiastical authority, had to leave Alexandria and moved to Caesarea in Palestine, where he founded another school.
was an individual trained in pagan philosophy, perhaps he was a teammate of Plotinus and Ammonius Saccas listener.
wrote an extensive work: we speak of 6000 writings. Some of them were comments, like the Gospel of John , in 32 books, but only commented to chapter 13. Of all his comments remains only a part.
As Origen did not know Hebrew, should working with a match of six different translations of the Old Testament, the Hexapla. worked from this material providing it with the characteristic signs from the Alexandrian philology.
A seminal work of Origen is the De principiis , preserved in full only in the translation of Rufinus (although we have extensive passages in Greek Books III and IV). In principiis
The fundamental questions about the doctrine (eg., Book I: The Triune God), the translation of Rufinus left aside the heretical parties. The text is important, among other things, because it is exposed in a scientific theory of the different senses of Scripture, so important in the whole tradition.

In the school founded by Origen in Caesarea came two generations later, Eusebio (approximately at 269 - 340), witnessed the conversion of Constantine starring Empire.
Today he is remembered primarily as a Church historian, for his Chronicle and Ecclesiastical History : in these works are reinterpreted all previous sufferings of Christians in the light of events of 314.
The Chronicle belongs to a genre with a certain tradition among Christians. Part of the belief the history of the world will last 6000 years (think of the 6 days of Creation), to be followed by a Saturday in 1000 years, the birth of Jesus is set in the year 5500, which made it clear to the contemporary the end of the world was still far away.
Through the Latin version of Jerome, the book had great influence in the Middle Ages.
Moreover, the 10 books of the Ecclesiastical History offer a story of Christianity from Jesus to Constantine. Constitute a history of salvation and try, as the chronicles, banish the idea that the world's end is near.
addition, Eusebius wrote Evangelica Præparatio also and Demonstratio Evangelica: the first demonstrates the superiority of Judeo-Christian tradition about pagan and the second, the superiority of the Christian tradition on Jewish.


4. THE GREEK FATHERS OF CONSTANTINE UP

From Constantine, disputes among theologians became matters of state, because political power was keen to have unity of doctrine in Christianity.
The first major controversy arose in this new climate is that of Arius (around 260 to 336), who played on the position of the Son within the Trinity.

reacted primarily against Arius Athanasius (295 - 373), who managed to excommunicate Arius at the Synod of Alexandria (318), unfinished and with the problem for the strong support that had the now heretical. In fact, Constantine was forced to convene the Council of Nicea (325), which was enacted identity of substance between the Father and the Son ( consubstantialem Patri, homoousia).
Athanasius was the author of various works:

• treated apologetic;
• letters;
• polemical writings against the Arians: first, its fragmented History of the Arians;
• and the work that inaugurated a new genre, his life Antonio, written during exile in Egypt, it has to Antonio as an embodiment of the ideal of monastic life. In this paper the model adapted Athanasius the philosopher's life and inaugurated the genre of the "lives of saints" model continued after St. Jerome.

next generation to that of Athanasius is that of the three Cappadocian Fathers, St. Basil (about 330 to 379), St. Gregory of Nyssa (around 335 to 394) and St. Gregory Nazianzen (329 / 330 - 390/391). The three have in common:

• the actions of a family Christian
• have a traditional education, pagan,
• he embraced monasticism;
• after having been elected as bishops.

Most of the writings of the three are rooted in the episcopal ministry performance: therefore in their homilies masterpieces or treaties against Arianism, and also the pastoral letters (some 350 in the case of Basil the more letters are preserved). Plus:

• Basil and Gregory Nazianzen wrote an anthology of Origen ( Philokalia)
• Basilio also promoted a Corpus asceticum, in the proposed standards of life for monks and priests ("Rule of St. Basil").

The most relevant figure for literary history is St. Gregory Nazianzen for the following reasons:

and grouped
• wrote letters to the fashion collections of letters of the Greek literary tradition - even developed a theory about the epistolary style ( look at the Epistle 51);
• also wrote poetry, which sometimes takes on a highly personal. 17000

retain traditional metrics verses (couplets and iambs). The topics are varied:

• issue, p. eg., biblical themes like the Ten Commandments or the parables of Jesus is also
• theological issues, such as virtue, and in doing so also evidence their knowledge of pagan literature (Plutarch).

In some ninety poems Gregory brings to the fore, sometimes featuring his personal thoughts (in the manner of Marcus Aurelius in Meditations : entry looks 53. The philosophy of the Empire ), sometimes in an attitude of defense.
This is especially the case in so-called "Autobiography" (Carmina II 1, 11), almost 2000 iambic.
The work was composed after that, tensions with the Arians, was forced to leave the See of Constantinople (381), which had occupied for only eighteen months.
His intention in writing the paper was to justify himself to his contemporaries and posterity: "I wanted to write as follows for all to hear, contemporary and future" (vv. 40-41).
Note the peculiarity of the text as poetry first autobiography, a kind of autobiography that contemporary scholars (see what is said in the Dictionary of Literary Terms of Estébanez Calderón) tend to distinguish from the autobiography itself. For translation

the autobiography of San Gregorio, you can go to S. García Jalón (trans.), Gregory Nazianzen . Fuga & Autobiography , Madrid, Ciudad Nueva, 1996.

on the meaning of the Cappadocian for the literary history can say that with them open ends of Christianity to the literary forms of the ancient pagan Greek. This is a transformation that take place in theory and practice:

• in theoretical Basil makes his Ad adulescentes (Homily 22), which indicates how you can take advantage spiritual pagan authors;
• in practical terms what Nazianzus does with his letters and poetry.

According to critics, from here you can differentiate between Christian literature and theological production "technique", which properly belongs to the field of Patristics.

Before concluding the subject of Greek Christian literature should focus on the peculiar figure Synesius (370 - around 415).
came from an old noble family of Cyrene (Libya). He studied traditional philosophy and then in Alexandria. There he came into contact with the Neoplatonic Hypatia, with which continued to maintain contact by letter throughout his life.
Around 397 or 399 Sinesio was on official (for a tax cut for Cyrene) to the court of Emperor remained in Constantinople for three years to carry out his assignment.
Returned to Africa was established in Alexandria, married and raised a family.
But being in that situation, was proposed in 410 for the bishopric of Ptolemais in Cyrenaica (do not know if it was already a Christian before.) It took a long time about his decision for the reasons stated in a letter to his brother ( Epistle 105).
His work can be divided into three groups:

• Letters: letters, about 150, were published by him and are our primary source on his life. Appear aimed at relatives as his brother or his teacher Hypatia Evoptio. It is striking that the letter describes a trip by sea (Epistle 5), the episodes of this and encounters with exotic natives, all reminiscent of the novel.
• Hymns: is 9, in which are combined with ideas of Platonic philosophy with Christian views.
• minor works: here we include works of various kinds: Some

written in the line of the Second Sophistic, is a paradoxical encomium (Praise of Bald ) : look at the hair Praise Dion of Prusa.
In another case ( Dion, or the change of life of the author) Synesius defends fundamentalist Christian theologians and philosophers, the work was dedicated to Hypatia.
Finally, it is curious case of Egyptian Tales (written in which he plays with the allegorical interpretation of myths), and the Book sleep in interpreting dreams from a Platonic perspective.

Joseph B. Torres Guerra

SOME REFERENCES:

* About Christian Greek literature (general):
BRAVO GARCÍA, A., "The rejection of the world in the Christian Greek literature of the fourth century and its philosophical implications," in Proceedings of the IX English Congress of Studies Classics Madrid, 1998. Volume 4, pp. 81-85.
COLPE, C., "Gnosis. II "in für Antike und Christentum Reallexikon 11 (1981), 537-659.
Dopp, S., and Geerlings, W. (Eds.), Lexikon der antike christliche Literatur, Freiburg-Basel-Vienna 1998th
DUMMER, J., "The position of the Greek Christian scriptures in the ancient literature," de J. y K. Irmscher Treu (eds.), The corpus of the Greek Christian writers, Berlín, 1977, pp. 65-76.
JAEGER, W., Cristianismo primitivo y paideia griega, México, 1965 ( Early Christianity and Greek culture , Berlin, 1963).
LENS Tuero, J., "Literatura Judeo helenística", en López Férez JA (ed.), Historia Greek Literature, Madrid, 1988, pp. 954-960.
MORESCHINI, C. and Norelli, E., Storia della letteratura antica greca e latina christiana. I: Da Paolo all 'età costantiniana, Brescia, 1995.
PIÑERO SÁENZ, A., "Early Christian Literature," in A. Díez Martínez (ed.), Scientific update in Greek philology, Madrid, 1984, pp. 599-609.
* On the New Testament and the Apostolic Fathers:
AYAN CALVO, JJ (trans.) Hermas. El pastor , Madrid, 1995.
CAMPHAUSEN, HV, The emergence of the Christian Bible, Tubinga, 1968.
Dorman, D., The New Testament in the ancient literature, Darmstadt, 1993.
* Sobre Patrologia y Patrística:
ALTANES, B., y Stuiber, A., Patrology, Viena, 1981 (9 ª ed.)
Drobné, H., textbook Patrology, Friburgo, 1994th
FUHRMANN, M., "The stories of the monk Jerome. Form experiments in narrative literature ", en M. Fuhrmann (ed.), Christianisme et formes littéraires de l'Antiquité tardive en occident, Ginebra, 1976, pp. 41-99.
Hübner, R., "Theses on the authenticity and dating of the seven letters of Ignatius," Zeitschr. f. Ancient Christianity 1 (1997), pp. 44-72.
KRAFT, H., Introduction to Patristic, Darmstadt, 1991.
POCHOSHAJEW, I., The soul in Plato, Plotinus, Porphyry, and Gregory of Nyssa: discussion of the relationship between Platonism and Christianity on the subject of the human soul in Gregory of Nyssa, Frankfurt a. M., 2004.
VOGT, HJ, "Why Origen was declared a heretic?" Origeniana 4 (1987), pp. 78-111.
* Sobre Sinesio:
GARCÍA ROMERO, FA (Traditional), Sinesio de Cirene. Himnos. Tratados, Madrid, 1993.
GARCÍA ROMERO, FA (trad) Sinesio de Cirene. Cartas, Madrid, 1995.
Gartner, HA, "The Synesios speech about the monarchy", en Philanthropia kai eusebeia. Festschrift A. Dihl, Gotinga, 1993, pp. 105-21.
PANTS, M., "The bishop and the philosopher. About the staging of a pair in the letters of Hypatia Synesios to ", de A. Heitmann, P. Nieboer, B. y S. Schülting Schaff (eds.), Bi-textuality. Productions of the pair , Berlin, 2001, pp. 323-333.
VOGT, J., Synesios Begegnung mit, dem Philosopher, Priester und Feldherrn, Darmstadt, 1985.
Vollenweider, S., und christliche Theologie bei Neuplatonische Synesios von Kyrene, Göttingen, 1985.